Emperor Meiji first visited the site that would become one of Japan’s most debated shrines in 1874. He vowed that the names of those who died for their country would live there forever. Over 2.4 million people are now honored at Yasukuni, a memorial and Shinto shrine in central Tokyo. Among them are 14 war criminals, remembered each August 15, marking the end of World War II for Japan.
The shrine offers spiritual comfort for some who mourn relatives and others who express gratitude. However, for Asian countries that suffered under Japanese imperial rule and expansion, Yasukuni remains a symbol of Japan’s militarism. Visits by Japanese leaders often draw criticism from China and South Korea, which view them as signs of insufficient remorse for Japan’s wartime conduct.
The Foundation of Yasukuni
The foundation of Yasukuni came during a historic transformation. Japan restored imperial rule in the 19th century after more than 250 years of military government. In 1869, a year into the new imperial era, Emperor Meiji ordered the shrine’s construction, later renamed Yasukuni.
The name comes from two Japanese characters translating to “peaceful country,” aiming to honor those who defended the imperial cause.
“Yasukuni Shrine was initially conceived as a message to the Japanese people,” said Akiko Takenaka, a professor of history at the University of Kentucky. “The message focused on the emperor and a new Japan.”
In that era, Meiji became seen as bestowing the highest honor on those who died for the empire. Men were expected to view sacrificing their lives for him as an honor.
Intertwining Religion and Government
Japan’s emperors have been regarded as descendants of the sun goddess Amaterasu in Shinto beliefs. The Meiji era strengthened this notion, giving rise to State Shinto. This allowed the government to control the shrine’s practices and finances, blurring the line between patriotism and religion.
The separation of religion and state came after Japan’s surrender in WWII. In 1945, U.S. Gen. Douglas MacArthur issued an order abolishing State Shinto. The measure stopped government funding for shrines and removed Shinto practices from public institutions. Yasukuni became a private religious corporation, raising questions about the constitutional separation of religion and government.
Controversy Over Enshrinement
Yasukuni is not a cemetery. It enshrines people as “kami” — divinities or sacred spirits in Shinto. Those honored include soldiers, women who aided battlefield efforts, students supporting wartime production, and foreign nationals who served Japan.
The most controversial are 14 Class-A war criminals. This designation applies to Japanese leaders accused of “crimes against peace,” such as planning and waging the war. Among them is wartime Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, linked to the Pearl Harbor attack. Their enshrinement happened secretly in 1978, three years after Hirohito last visited the shrine.
“Emperor Hirohito did not go again after he found out,” said Mark R. Mullins, professor of Japanese and religious studies at the University of Auckland. “He didn’t want to get caught up in criticism surrounding that.”
Hirohito’s successors have sent emissaries for key annual rites but have not visited in person as emperors. Other controversial enshrinements include Buddhists, Christians, Koreans, and Taiwanese included without consent, according to Mullins. Some have taken legal action, but Japanese courts have rejected requests to remove relatives from the shrine.
Different Meanings for Different People
Yasukuni holds various meanings. For some bereaved families, it centers on personal grief. For others seeking a return to strength lost in war and occupation, Yasukuni represents more.
Next to the shrine is the Yushukan Museum, displaying wartime artifacts. Scholars note its account of Japan’s military history omits China and Korea’s experiences under Japanese imperialism. According to John Breen, a professor at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, the Yushukan depicts a war remembered as solely glorious.
“By eliminating the enemy, the Yushukan remembers a war that was only ever glorious,” wrote Breen in his work.
Some visitors find spiritual meaning that does not equate to endorsing war. Kana Shindo, a member of Tokyo’s Minato City Assembly, sees the shrine as a place for reflection and thanksgiving.
“I have absolutely no intention of glorifying war,” said Shindo. “I visit because the peaceful Japan in which we live today exists upon the lives and accumulated history of people before us.”
Bereaved Families and Yasukuni
Before leaving for war, Japanese soldiers often told families they would be enshrined at Yasukuni. Toshiei Mizuochi, president of the Japan War-Bereaved Families Association, recalls how soldiers promised families they would be at Yasukuni if they died.
Mizuochi’s father, a Japanese navy serviceman, died six days before the war’s end. Over 2.4 million Japanese soldiers died overseas in WWII, with about 1 million remains yet to be recovered.
“Bereaved families who received neither remains nor belongings believe the spirits of the war dead are at Yasukuni Shrine,” Mizuochi said.
Relatives visit Yasukuni beyond August 15, attending ceremonies, commemorating death anniversaries, and reporting family milestones like schooling, jobs, marriages, or children. Mizuochi visits Yasukuni often, thinking of his father when praying.